Interviewing survivors of sexual violence Because of the social stigma attached to rape or sexual violence in many cultures, respondents who have experienced such violence may be particularly reluctant to speak about their experience. Extra effort should be made to create an interview environment where the respondent would be willing to report such abuse, to develop a rapport with those individuals and to assure them of the confidentiality of the interview. Once an interviewer is able to establish the basic facts around the abuse or violence (what occurred, when, where, who was responsible, and whether there were witnesses) there may be no need to dwell on the details. In this context, female interviewers should conduct interviews with female respondents. Interviewers may also wish to adopt the following guidelines for reducing harm to women in studies on violence against women:  Interview only one woman per household;  Do not interview men about sexual violence in the same households or clusters where women have been asked about violence;  Craft diversionary questions on a less sensitive topic to use if others enter the room during the interview, including children. People who have experienced torture may suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder and other emotional or psychological difficulties, including memory impairment, anxiety, and phobias. If respondents are having difficulty recalling or describing their experiences, it may be necessary to rely on other sources of information to understand the respondent’s history, such as statements of relatives or friends. Expert medical advice can also help. Interviewing individuals who have experienced trauma People who are recalling traumatic incidents may appear unreliable—they may experience difficulty remembering episodes of their experience, confuse details including times and locations, and add details as they come to mind or become more trusting of the interviewer. Respondents should be given opportunities to clarify their responses, especially in relation to key details like dates, times, and names. Again, interviewers should be careful not to express skepticism, mistrust, or condescension. If the respondent becomes upset or emotional during the interview, change the subject and try to return to the topic at a later time. Do not push the respondent, and be respectful and sympathetic to the respondent’s experiences. Be patient and allow the respondent to express themselves. Take a break if it appears that the respondent is becoming tired or overwhelmed. Interviewers should be prepared for the fact that discussing past traumatic experiences, such as torture, may trigger re-traumatization. Re-traumatization occurs when a person re-experiences a past state of trauma. This cannot always be avoided, but the risk can be minimized. Suggested steps include:  Pace the interview to avoid overwhelming the respondent;  Recognize and acknowledge the difficulty of recalling traumatic events in a respectful way that avoids condescension;  Actively listen to the respondent and encourage them to speak about their experiences;  Avoid labeling or categorizing the respondent’s behavior, or making assumptions or judgments about the respondent’s behavior. Note that an 17